Child sexual abuse victims Essay Example for Free

Child sexual abuse victims Essay I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Sexual abuse of children is a harsh fact of life in our society. Child sexual abuse is a form of child abuse in which an adult or older adolescents uses a child for sexual stimulation. Forms of child sexual abuse includes asking or pressuring a child to engage in sexual activates, regardless of the outcome, indecent exposure to a child with intent to gratify their own sexual desire or to intimidate or groom the child, physically sexual contact with child or using a child to produce child pornography. A child abuse victim can result in both short term and long-term harm physically and emotionally. What would you do if you knew a child who became a victim? Thats a question everyone should be ready to answer if they want to protect our future generations. A. DEFINITIONS There is no universal definition for CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE VICTIM(S). However, a major characteristic of any abuse is the dominant position of an adult that allows him or her to force or coerce a child into sexual activity. Child sexual abuse may include fondling a childs genitals, masturbation, oral-genital contact, digital penetration, and vaginal and anal intercourse. (American psychological association, 2011) Other forms of abuse can also occur that are not as easy to detect. These include showing adults genitals to a child, showing the child pornographic or dirty pictures or videotapes, or using the child as a model to make pornographic materials. (Child advocacy resources) A victim of child abuse suffers from PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS that have an immediate emotion. These effects of abuse cause isolation, fear and an inability to trust. This can translate into lifelong consequences, including low self-esteem, depression, and relationship difficulties. Researchers have identified links between child abuse and poor mental and emotional health, Cognitive difficulties, and Social difficulties. In one long-term study, 80 percent of young adults who were abused met the diagnostic criteria for at least one psychiatric disorder by age 21. Some problems include depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and suicide attempts. Other psychological and emotional effects include panic attacks, attention-deficit/ hyperactive disorder, depression, anger, and posttraumatic stress. (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2008) PHYSICAL EFFECTS are defined, as immediate physical abuse can be relatively minor, such as bruises or cuts. It can also be very severe such as broken bones, hemorrhage, or even death. Physical effects in some cases can be temporary, however the pain and suffering they cause a child should not be discounted. Several studies have shown adults who experience abuse or neglect during childhood is more likely to suffer from physical ailments such as allergies, arthritis, asthma, bronchitis, and high blood pressure. (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2008) B. STATISTICS 1. VULNERABILITY In over 90 percent of child sexual abuses causes, the offender is known and trusted by the victim. Grooming is the process used by the offend ender to recruiter and prepare a child for sexual victimization. It starts when the offender targets a specific child. While all children are at risk for victimization, certain factors make some children more vulnerable to sexual abuse than others. For example, a child is especially susceptible if he or she feels unloved, has low self-esteem, has little contact with committed adults or regularly spends time unsupervised. Sex offenders commonalty  engage children by spending time with them, playing games with them, and showing them special attention or giving them gifts. Older children or teens may be offered drugs or alcohol. Offenders forge an emotional bond through frequent contact, positive interaction and by conveying the child or teen that they understand or can appreciate their interests and concerns. In time the emotional bond leads to non-sexual physical contact which can take the form of physical play such as wrestling, affection, touching etc. In this way the offender tests the childs boundaries, gradually turning into sexual touch. Usually if the child is older the child starts to become uncomfortable or fearful of the sexual activity. Offenders typically threat the child to keep them from speaking up. Most child victims are caught in a web of fear, guilt and confusion as a result of the sex offenders grooming and manipulation. Sadly, many child victims remain silent about their abuse. (Bisquera) 2. INDICATORS OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE Indicators of child sexual abuse are varied and should always be considered in the context of what else is happening in a childs life. Any one indicator, on its own, is a sign that something may be impacting a childs well being. Some behavior indicators can be unexplained change in a childs comfort level (either attachment or fear) around any person in a position of trust. They could show abrupt changes in performance in school or home. A significant difference in the way the child socializes. For younger children, a sudden loss of skills could be a red flag. A child who was toilet trained could start wetting the bed. Abuse can an also include sexual behavior, often in front of others, such as self-exposure, masturbation, touching others peoples private parts, sexual language. In older children or teens this might be seen as promiscuous behavior. Physical indicators such as bruises, scratches, irritation/ itching around genitals that are not consistent with explanations of how they happened. A victim who is not sexually active could show signs of sexual transmitted diseases, such as crabs, herpes, and gonorrhea. They could also experience tenderness or soreness around areas of penetration. Finding blood in their stool or urine should also cause some concern when it is not explained by other conditions. Underwear is often where proof of abuse may exist. (Bisquera) C. EXPERT STATEMENTS 1. FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE Overall cases of child sexual abuse fell more than 60 percent from 1992 to 2010, according to David Finkelhor, a leading expert on sexual abuse. The evidence for this decline comes from a variety of indicators. It includes national surveys of child abuse and crime victimization. The crime statistics are compiled by the F.B.I analysis of data from the National Data Archive On Child Abuse and Neglect and annual surveys of school students in Minnesota. All of the data pointed in the same direction. From 1990 to 2010 cases of sexual abuse dropped from 23 per 10,000 children to 8.6 per 10,000 children. All of the subjects were under the age of 18. Researches found a 62 percent decrease. There was a 3 percent drop from 2009 to 2010. The Minnesota Student Survey also reported a 29 percent decline in reports of sexual abuse by an adult who was not a family member from1992 to 2010. They also saw a 28 percent drop in reports of sexual abuse by a family member. At the same time, the willingness of children to report sexual abuses has increased. They found that in 50 percent of sexual abuse cases, the childs victimization had been reported to an authority, compared with 25 percent in 1992. (Goode, 2012) 2. COMMON MOTIVES OF OFFENDERS Studies on who commits child sexual abuse vary in their findings, but the most common finding is that the majority of sexual offenders are family members or is otherwise known to the child. Sexual abuse by strangers is not nearly as common as sexual abuse by a family member. Reasearch further shows that men perpetrate most instances of sexual abuse, but there are cases that women are the offenders. Despite a common myth, Homosexual men are not more likely to sexually abuse children than heterosexual men. (American psychological association, 2011) About 73% of child sexual abusers report experiencing sexual abuse in their own childhood. Not all pedophiles are child molesters. Pedophilia is a clinical term that describes a person who has had repeated arousing fantasies, sexual urges, or behaviors related to sexual activities with children for at least six months. Pedophiles do not  necessarily have to act on their urges. Sexual offenders have the same attraction to children, but they act on their urges. Sexual offenders come from all backgrounds and social classes. They do their best to become friends with parents, and then they work to gain the childs trust. (64 facts of 2012) II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE A. HISTORY 1. THE RISE OF PUBLIC CONCERN Public concern about child abuse has steadily increased. The number of referrals to child protection services in recent years has risen every year since the 1960s. It is not clear if the increase of reporting is due to a higher incident of abuse or a widening of the definition of abuse. (Eileen, 2008) Sexual abuse of children was not taken seriously until 1964 when congress passed the Child Abuse and Prevent and Treatment Act. This established reporting requirements of suspected cases. Among some experts there was a tendency to deny that sexual abuse had lasting consequences. Researchers have now found that there are long-term emotional problems that surface. (Mintz,2012) A contributing factor to the growing public concern is also widely publicized deaths. Although the field of child protection services date back to the nineteenth century, public concern has rarely reached the present level of intensity. (Polsky, 1991) 2. CIVIL LAWSUITS Child abuse statues have been enacted in most states to provide civil immunity for those making good faith reports of suspected child abuse. Most states also provide immunity from criminal liability. Physicians, nurses and social workers are required to report suspected child abuse that comes before them in some states failure to report a case carries criminal penalties as well as civil liability. B. KEY ISSUES 1. WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE? There are short term and long-term impacts of sexual child abuse. Depression, anxiety, amnesia, disengagement and numbing are just a few have the psychological and emotional responses victims experience. As children become adults they can suffer intimacy disturbance, making it hard for them to physically and emotionally have a healthy relationship. Suicidal thoughts and co-dependence are also long-term impacts of sexual abuse. WHAT TO DO IF YOU THINK A CHILD YOU KNOW HAS BEEN THE VICTIM OF CHILD ABUSE Speak up but choose the time and place carefully. Do not ask the child about his or her abuse in front of the person you think may be abusing the child. Ask them questions. Find out if anyone has been making them feel uncomfortable. They many not know they are being abused themselves or know its wrong. Follow up on whatever made you concerned. Ask in a non-judgmental way using the word I rather than you so they dont feel shamed. Building a trusting relationship with the child is also important. They should know how to say no and when something does make them feel uncomfortable, they should tell a trusted adult. Most importantly, children should know that some parts of their body are private. (RAINN, 2009) PROVING SEXUAL ABUSE Many child abuse cases must be proved using circumstantial evidence because direct evidence is not available. In many instances, the child is unable to tell what happened, and the offender does not ordinarily disclose the truth. Inferences are therefore very important in providing child abuse. Some sexual abuse requires proof of forcible compulsion. When the victim is a child, the child abuses often submits to the advances of adults who have parental or similar authorities over the child. (Tomas J., 2010) C. MOST RECENT RESEARCH 1. UNDERREPORTED AND LIGHTLY PROSECUTED Child abuse is greatly underreported and under estimated mostly because of the lack of an agreed- upon definition of abuse. Underreporting is related to several factors. Children over the age of 5 often care for or know their abuser. Therefore, they find themselves trapped between the need for affection and a sense that something is wrong. Cases of sexual child abuse are often lightly prosecuted because of minimal communication between  the prosecutors office and child protected services. 2. POSSIBLE COMPLICATIONS Some children overcome the physical and physiological effects of child abuse. Those with strong social support can adapt and cope with bad experiences. For many others, however, child abuse has lifelong consequences, For example, child abuse may result in physical, behavioral, emotion and mental issues. Some physical issues include disabilities and health problems. Abuse of others or frequent, causal sex with many different partners (sexual promiscuity) or teen pregnancy is an example of behavioral issues. Emotional issues can include low self-esteem, difficulty establishing or maintaining relationship, challenges with intimacy and trust. (Mayo Clinic, 2010) D. INFORMATION FOR THE EXPERTS 1. RESEARCH REGARDING PREVENTION STRATEGIES FROM EXPERTS Experts suggest correcting the imbalance between adult and children by empowering children. First off information is power. Children who know their own bodies are more likely to choose when, how, and by whom they are touched. Self esteem building and experts also suggest self-defense skills. Lastly children need resources. They should have a network of trusted adults they can turn to. (Torbin,2002) 2. PROTECTING CHILDREN FROM SEXUAL ABUSE The first step in protecting children from sexual abuse is recognizing telltale symptoms. Changes in attitude and rebellion at school could point to an underling problem. It is important to educated children about their body parts by understanding what is private. Adults need to be aware of their childs surrounding at school or in a childcare setting. Parents should educate themselves on red flags to protect their child from sexual abuse. III. SUMMARY A. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 1. ABOUT RESEARCH Despite our prevention effort, much more must be done to decrease the incidents of child abuse and neglect. Our efforts should be directed to changes in the helping system, changes in society, and additional research. One of the hopes for the future lies in research, not only to further define and understand abuse but also to evaluate existing programs. Only though out commitment to change and our willingness to research what will create a better future will we combat the growing problem of sexual child abuse. 2. ABOUT PROGRAMS With child protection agencies are responsible for direct intervention form investigation and case management. These agencies can be hampered if there is not communicatory and public support for their work, which includes offering programs to help prevent child sexual abuse. There needs to be more extensive community awareness and education to reduce harm. B. SOCIETYS CONCERN WITH CRIME Society is helping the system make changes in order to reduce the rate of child abuse. Research is needed to further define and understand abuse. Evaluation is also needed for the existing programs. Commitment to change and willingness to research will create a better future to combat the growing problem of sexual child abuse. IV. CONCLUSION A. THE PROBLEM REVISITED WITH OPINIONS Child abuse is always been a problem, and in recent year it has made its way to the spotlight. Many people are willing to talk about them being a victim as a child. The more people feel comfortable talking about child sexual abuse. The less it will become a crime. Children become victims because of their vulnerability of trusting adults and unaware of the wrong. If you think a child you know has been a victim of child sexual abuse thing you can do is to give the child a safe environment in which to talk to you or another trusted adult. Encourage the child to talk about what he or she has  experienced, but be careful not to suggest events to him or her that may not of happened. Reassure the child that they did not do anything wrong. Seek mental assistance for the child. Being aware that many states laws require that persons who know or have a reason to suspect that a child has been sexual abuses must report that abuse to either a local law informant officials or child protection officials. Our future generation needs to feel protected from being a victim of child sexual abuse. B. SUGGESTION OF POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS. 1. PROGRAMS The best way to prevent child abuse is educate parents about child abuse. Most parents feel that this could never happen to them. When it happens the parents are in shock, but when they learn some warning signs, they are able to point them out. There are many free programs that can teach parents how to educate their children on protecting themselves from child abuse. The reality is when there are budget cuts; these programs that protect our future generations are the first to get cut. 2. POLICY Having Policys in school districts and childcare environments can be the solution to protecting children. One suggestion would be to have restrictions on when and where is acceptable for a child to alone with adult. This policy does not only protect the child, but it protects the adult from false accusations. 3. LAWS Laws against child sexual abuse can very by country. Based on the local definition of who is a child and what constitutes sexual abuse. As the age of the consent to sexual behaviors varies from country to country, so do definitions of child sexual abuse. An adults sexual intercourse with a minor below the legal age of consent may sometimes be referred to statutory rape based on the principle that any apparent consent by a minor could not be considered legal consent. References _American psychological association_. (2011). Retrieved February 20, 2013, from http://www.apa.org/pubs/info/brochures/sex-abuse.aspx A.D.A.M. (2012). _New york times_. Retrieved February 20, 2013, from http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/child-abuse-sexual/overview.html Bisquera, A. _Child sexual abuse_. Retrieved February 20, 2013, from http://satchawaii.com/get-info-about- child-sexual-abuse.aspx _Child advocacy resource and consultation center_. (n.d.). Retrieved February 20, 2013, from http://www.nyscarcc.org/abuse/abuse.php Child Welfare Information Gateway. (2008). _Factsheets_. Retrieved February 20, 2013, from https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/factsheets/long_term_consequences.cf Eileen , M. (2008). (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. Retrieved April 1, 2013 from http://books.google.com/books?id=0nkvffIwK5YCpg=PA80dq=rise of public concern child abusehl=ensa=Xei=n4tQUdO1OqHQiwKnqICQCwved=0CFMQ6AEwBg Goode, E. (2012, June 28). Researchers see decline in child sexual abuse rate. Retrieved February 20, 2013, from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/29/us/rate- of-child-sexual- abuse-on-the-decline.html?_r=0 Mayo Clinic. (2010, July 1). _Child abuse: Complications_. Retrieved April 1, 2013 from http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/child-abuse/DS01099/DSECTION=complications Mintz, S. (2012, July 13). Placing childhood sexual abuse in historical perspective. Retrieved April 1, 2013 from http://blogs.ssrc.org/tif/2012/07/13/placing-childhood-sexual-abuse-i n-historical-perspective/ Polsky, A. (1991). _The rise of the therapeutic state_. (1st ed.). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Retrieved April 1, 2013 from http://books.google.com/books?id=fngqbWhPLmsCpg=PA202dq=rise of public concern child abusehl=ensa=Xei=n4tQUdO1OqHQiwKnqICQCwved=0CF4Q6AEwCA RAINN. (2009). _Child sexual abuse_. Retrieved April 1, 2013 from http://www.rainn.org/get- information/types-of-sexual-assault/child-sexual-abuse/if-you-suspect Sue , A. M. (1996). _The reality of abuse_. Retrieved February 20, 2013, from http://www.yesican.org/stats.html Tomas J., G. (2010). _Criminal evidence: Principles and cases_. (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Retrieved April 1, 2013 from http://books.google.com/books?id=AlBYw53p9f4Cpg=PA81dq=proving sexual abusehl=ensa=Xei=G6ZQUaqVF8LJigKV_IDICgved=0CEMQ6AEwAw (2012). 64 facts of.. child sexual abuse. Retrieved February 20, 2013, from http://facts.randomhistory.com/child-sexual-abuse-facts.html

Professional Sports - NBA Should Enforce a Hard Salary Cap Essay exampl

The NBA Should Enforce a Hard Salary Cap      Ã‚   How many of you sports fans out there are sick of paying twenty-five dollars for a lousy seat at an NBA game? How many of you are sick of seeing the same teams in the finals every year? I'm sure there are thousands of you out there that feel this way, as do I. The way we can fix these problems is to demand that the NBA enforce a hard salary cap. A hard salary cap would lower ticket prices, allow for more teams to be more competitive and eliminate the possibility of any future lockouts. If the three things listed above aren't met, it's hard to say if the NBA will survive at all. I want to see the NBA survive, but not in the way things are being run now. A hard salary cap is the only way the fans and the players can coexist.    A hard salary cap will lower ticket prices. I, among many of friends am a die-hard NBA fan, but we can only afford to attend one or two games a year. The average ticket price in the NBA is twenty-five dollars and that doesn't include a pair of binoculars, which you'll need if you're sitting in a twenty-five-dollar seat. That can give you an idea of how much a court side seat might cost you. Some people wonder why tickets are so much. Maybe Mike Kahn, who is the CBS Sportsline Executive Editor, can tell us why ticket prices are so high. In one of his articles he notes. Players' salaries are escalating faster than revenue and it would be foolish not to throw a lid on it. Tickets are already out of sight for a middle class family. ( 2 ) That means to me that players are demanding more and more money and ticket prices have to go up to compensate for higher salaries. I n the Tampa Tribune, Bill Fay, a sports writer for the paper noted. Most of the teams h... ...salary cap will provide an answer for some of the most serious problems facing the NBA. It will lower ticket prices, allow more teams to be more competitive and eliminate the any future lockouts. If these problems can be fixed by enforcing a hard salary cap, I don't see why it shouldn't be done. The NBA should enforce a hard salary cap.    Works Cited Fay, Bill " Owners Need To Be Restrained", Tampa Tribune 5 July 1998, 1-2 Kahn, Mike," Latest News Could Stall Negotiations", October, 1998, n. pag. Online. World Wide Web <wysiwyg://71/http://cbs.sportsline.../page/cyberspy/oct98/spy101998.htm> Nov. 14, 98 Anonymous." Labor Issues", The Salt Lake Tribune 30 June 1998,1 MacMullan, Jackie," Lockout Limbo", July 1998, n. pag. Online. World Wide Web <http:www.cnnsi.com/features/1998/weekly/980720/nbalock_intro.html> Nov. 14,1998 Professional Sports - NBA Should Enforce a Hard Salary Cap Essay exampl The NBA Should Enforce a Hard Salary Cap      Ã‚   How many of you sports fans out there are sick of paying twenty-five dollars for a lousy seat at an NBA game? How many of you are sick of seeing the same teams in the finals every year? I'm sure there are thousands of you out there that feel this way, as do I. The way we can fix these problems is to demand that the NBA enforce a hard salary cap. A hard salary cap would lower ticket prices, allow for more teams to be more competitive and eliminate the possibility of any future lockouts. If the three things listed above aren't met, it's hard to say if the NBA will survive at all. I want to see the NBA survive, but not in the way things are being run now. A hard salary cap is the only way the fans and the players can coexist.    A hard salary cap will lower ticket prices. I, among many of friends am a die-hard NBA fan, but we can only afford to attend one or two games a year. The average ticket price in the NBA is twenty-five dollars and that doesn't include a pair of binoculars, which you'll need if you're sitting in a twenty-five-dollar seat. That can give you an idea of how much a court side seat might cost you. Some people wonder why tickets are so much. Maybe Mike Kahn, who is the CBS Sportsline Executive Editor, can tell us why ticket prices are so high. In one of his articles he notes. Players' salaries are escalating faster than revenue and it would be foolish not to throw a lid on it. Tickets are already out of sight for a middle class family. ( 2 ) That means to me that players are demanding more and more money and ticket prices have to go up to compensate for higher salaries. I n the Tampa Tribune, Bill Fay, a sports writer for the paper noted. Most of the teams h... ...salary cap will provide an answer for some of the most serious problems facing the NBA. It will lower ticket prices, allow more teams to be more competitive and eliminate the any future lockouts. If these problems can be fixed by enforcing a hard salary cap, I don't see why it shouldn't be done. The NBA should enforce a hard salary cap.    Works Cited Fay, Bill " Owners Need To Be Restrained", Tampa Tribune 5 July 1998, 1-2 Kahn, Mike," Latest News Could Stall Negotiations", October, 1998, n. pag. Online. World Wide Web <wysiwyg://71/http://cbs.sportsline.../page/cyberspy/oct98/spy101998.htm> Nov. 14, 98 Anonymous." Labor Issues", The Salt Lake Tribune 30 June 1998,1 MacMullan, Jackie," Lockout Limbo", July 1998, n. pag. Online. World Wide Web <http:www.cnnsi.com/features/1998/weekly/980720/nbalock_intro.html> Nov. 14,1998

Biography of Dr Grace Murrary Hopper

Dr. Grace Murray Hopper was born on December 9, 1906. As a child Grace Hopper enjoyed learning about machines, technology and other countries cultures. Following her mother†s love for mathematics and her father†s love for literature, Grace had high expectations for herself. Family life was large influence as she grew up, from the close relationship she had with her grandfather, a surveyor in New York City, she learned about real life at a young age. Her father, Walter Fletcher Murray, was a successful insurance broker, also taught Grace the importance of a good education to succeed in life. Her mother, Mary Campbell Horne Murray, perused a career in geometry by special arrangement even though it was not an encouraged job for women at this time. Grace's great-grandfather, Alexander Russel, inspired her interest in the Navy. Russel had been a rear admiral for the US Navy, a position Grace also filled in her lifetime. Grace's parents were progressive in their views of education for females, firmly certifying Grace's pursuit of higher learning. Her father believed that Grace deserved a college education as much as his son did, and, with the coming of the depression, he thought it overbearing in order to secure a job in desperate economic times. To that end, Grace attended Vassar College in 1924, and quickly distinguished herself there in the disciplines of science, specifically mathematics and physics. She graduated in 1928 with Phi Beta Kappa honors and a Vassar College Fellowship, and with that scholarship financed continued graduate study in math at Yale University, earning there an MA in 1930 and a Ph. D. in 1934, as well as two Sterling Scholarships and an election to Sigma Xi. It was also during that time that Grace married Vincent Hopper, an English teacher from New York University. After the outbreak of World War II, Grace enlisted in the Navy, despite the disapproval of female cadets. With a Wanting to follow her Grandfathers footsteps Grace perused a naval career even though she did not meet the weight and height requirements to join WAVES (Women Accepted for Voluntary Emergency Service). But Grace received a weight and height waiver and took a leave of absence from Vassar College to join the Navy, even though the government thought that Grace's mathematics skills would be better used at home. But she overcame this obstacle too and joined the Midshipman†s School for Women. Grace graduated first in her class as Lieutenant Junior Grade Grace Murray Hopper. From there Grace was assigned to work at the Bureau of Ordnance Computation Project, at Harvard University, to work with computers. Hopper worked under Commander Howard Aiken, and helped work with the Mark I, the first computer automatically sequenced to calculate the angles for the naval guns when the weather is bad. Hopper continued to work on the Mark II and the Mark III. For her achievements with this series she was given the Naval Ordinance Award in 1946. After the War many of the WAVES went back to their normal lives, but Grace, having just divorced her husband Vincent Foster Hopper, wanted to stay in the Navy. But Grace had just turned forty and the maximum age was thirty-eight, so Grace had to leave. She stayed at the Harvard Computational Lab, still being a member of the Naval Reserves. In 1966, the Navy asked Hopper to retire again, but after seven months, they found they couldn't work without her and asked her return. Grace was asked to return to work for six months, but she ended up staying indefinitely. Upon graduating, Grace was assigned to the Bureau of Ordinance Computation at Harvard University. There she was greeted by Commander Howard Aiken who introduced her to Mark I as â€Å"a computer engine†. After coming acquainted with the device, Grace received her first mission from Aiken, which was â€Å"to have the coefficients for the interpolation of the arc tangents by next Thursday†. Officers Robert Campbell and Richard Bloch assisted her in the design of her computer program, which consequently made her the third person ever to program the first large-scale automatically sequenced digital computer in the world. When Grace was programming it, Mark I was being used to calculate the angles at which naval guns were to be aimed. A plethora of calculations were needed because the angles depended on weather conditions. Creating programs for the machine was similarly tedious for Grace and the company. â€Å"The coding sheets we used had three columns on the left [for code numbers] and we wrote comments on the right which didn't go into the computer,† as she said. The values were translated to punch tape, which was subsequently input into the computer. With the accustomed problems associated with the Mark development and the inherent difficulty in its programming, results were slow achievements. One of their many problems was the proverbial computer bug, except that this time it was a literal problem. During the building of the Mark II, the predecessor of the former computer engine, the computer suddenly and for no apparent reason stopped. Upon inspection of the computer, Grace and her team found a moth, which had flown into a relay from an open window. The moth had been pulverized by the relay and consequently had caused the device to fail. The term â€Å"bug† was thus popularized to signify any system malfunction. A new machine BINAC was soon developed programmed in the more effective C-10 language, which according to Grace, â€Å"has been the basis for most codes since. A was add, M was multiply, B was bring, C was clear; it was a beautiful code. † Performed in octal, the programs forced Grace to teach herself octal arithmetic, which she eventually mastered with great proficiency. She subsequently realized a need to simplify the computing process, to make it more layperson friendly. Grace pursued different avenues to achieve this goal. Grace created her first compiler with the Sperry Corporation in 1952. Known as the A-0, the system was a set of instructions that translated mathematical code into machine language. Later the A-1 and A-2 systems evolved under her direction, and became the forerunner to modern programming languages. She pioneered the integration of English into programs, as well, with the B-0 compiler, later to be known as the FLOW-MATIC. Targeted for business applications, Grace's machine were effectively using FLOW-MATIC to understand English phrases. By 1957 three major languages existed for computers: APT, FORTRAN, and FLOW-MATIC. Each language, however, could only operate on a specific platform, and with the proliferation of disparate languages the use of a single, uniform format came into demand. The universal language to remedy this problem was COBOL, and even though she was not involved in the project, much of which was based on Grace's FLOW-MATIC. Throughout Grace Hopper's life she achieved many awards that other women had never been recognized for. In 1964 she was awarded the Society of Women Engineers, SWE Achievement Award. Many people think of the Computer Sciences â€Å"Man of the Year Award† her greatest achievement. When she received this award in 1969, she was the first person ever assigned this award, and the first women to be presented any award by the Data Processing Management Association. Grace was the first woman to be inducted into the Distinguished Fellow British Computer Society in 1973. Grace also achieved many awards from the Colleges and Universities that she attended and taught at, such as the Upsilon Pi Epsilon, Honorary Member from Texas A&M; Honorary Doctor of Engineering, Newark College of Engineering; Wilbur Lucius Cross Medal and Yale University. Grace taught at many colleges and universities in her life and gave many motivational speeches, her favorite teaching aid was a piece of wire that was the length of a nanosecond (about one foot), the maximum distance electricity can travel in wire in one-billionth of a second. She would then compare the nano-second to the microsecond that was over a thousand feet long. On January 1, 1992, Grace Hopper died at the age of 85. Even after her death Grace continues to influence many peoples lives. The impact she had on the world of programming has changed computers forever. She also influenced the naval and other military services through her perseverance and her plans for the future. She refused to let anything get in the way of her success.

What Not to Bring to Boarding School